Highlights of CRS’s Historical Work

The summary of CRS’s historical work outlined below rely on CRS’s annual reports (1965-2022) and the definitive history of CRS authored by Bertram Levine and Grande Lum, America’s Peacemakers: The Community Relations Service and Civil Rights (University of Missouri Press, 2020). Levine served as an associate director of CRS in 1966-1989. Lum served as the director of CRS in 2012-2016. Levine wrote the first edition of the book that took CRS’s work through 1989; Lum updated the book through 2019. Lum maintains AmericasPeacemakers.org, dedicated to his book and the CRS legacy.

Additional details of CRS’s historical work is found in a 155-page summary created by attorneys with BCLP who submitted an amicus brief on behalf of 102 civil rights organizations in the current litigation to restore CRS.

1964-1970            

  • Establishment: CRS was created by Title X of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Since then, CRS has worked toward preventing violence in many of America’s tense moments in civil rights history. Abiding by the confidentiality mandate in the CRA, CRS’s conciliators have worked quietly and without publicity, focusing on resolving divisive conflicts and preserving and restoring peace.

  • First Annual Report: As reported in CRS’s 1965 annual report to Congress, between October 1964 and September 1965, CRS addressed conciliation needs in 564 separate matters arising in 178 communities across 31 states. Seven of these matters were court referrals for settlement proceedings as provided for in the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The leading categories of matters that CRS conciliated were public accommodation, school desegregation, access to public facilities, housing and employment discrimination, and voter registration. 

  • Selma, Alabama: In March 1965, CRS’s conciliators were dispatched to Selma, following what has come to be known as the “Bloody Sunday” attack on peaceful marchers seeking to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge. The conciliators coordinated with civil rights leaders, the Justice Department, and state officials in shuttle diplomacy to negotiate a safe path for the subsequent marches to Montgomery, Alabama. These efforts contributed to the prevention of outbreak of further violence, bloodshed, and injuries, enabled the resumption of a peaceful march to Montgomery, and helped established CRS’s credibility as an impartial peacemaker.

  • Memphis, Tennessee: After the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, 100 cities across the United States saw civil disorder and rioting. One city where riots did not occur was Memphis, where Dr. King was assassinated. Memphis remained peaceful due in part to the work that began earlier that year when CRS provided conciliation services during a sanitation workers’ strike and met with African American community members, religious leaders, and gang members to prevent an escalation of violence during the strike. As CRS reported in its 1968 report, upon learning of Dr. King’s death CRS mediators addressed the crowd that gathered to hear Dr. King’s speech and encouraged them to go home and refrain from protesting or committing acts of violence. CRS also sought out African American gang members and urged them not to cause any civil disturbances. CRS’s proactive peacemaking helped Memphis avoid the types of violence that inflamed cities nationwide.

1970-1980

  • Wounded Knee, South Dakota: As reported in the 1973 and 1974 reports, CRS served as a neutral intermediary and communication channel between the 250 members of the American Indian Movement and Ogla Lakota activists that had occupied Wounded Knee. CRS’s work to mediate and maintain lines of communication contributed to the prevention of bloodshed and ultimately helped end the standoff.

  • Boston, Massachusetts: In the 1970s, CRS became significantly involved in mediating school desegregation conflicts, especially major U.S. cities such as Boston, Detroit, and Dayton. Notably, as reported in CRS’s 1974, 1975, and 1976 reports, CRS conciliators played a critical role in Boston that faced a challenging desegregation and busing crisis. 

    • Over the years that followed U.S. District Judge W. Arthur Garrity’s June 1974 desegregation order of Boston schools, a CRS team worked with the school district officials, mayor’s office, police department, and various community groups, including NAACP that had brought the lawsuit seeking desegregation. CRS’s work also included engaging in de-escalation of violent situations in individual schools, such as during a “melee” that occurred in South Boston High School where a conciliator singlehandedly calmed a fight that had broken out between Black and White students. Recognizing CRS’s important role, Judge Garrity brought CRS into the desegregation process and required all parties to cooperate with CRS’s coordination and peacemaking efforts. Over the following years, CRS actively worked in Boston to prevent violence, organize interracial parent councils, and sustain dialogues among governmental and community stakeholders. 

    • On December 6, 1978, Judge Garrity wrote President Jimmy Carter regarding CRS’s work in Boston as follows: “At the outset of school desegregation here, and on several occasions thereafter, local officials simply didn’t know which way to turn. CRS was able to . . . provide counsel and leadership not only to school officials but to the police and other municipal departments as well, and to avoid widespread violence.”

  • Skokie, Illinois: In 1977, as reported in the 1978 report, CRS successfully led a negotiation between a neo-Nazi group seeking to march in Skokie (a Chicago suburb with a large Jewish population), the Jewish community (including many Holocaust survivors), city officials, and civil rights advocates that resulted in the prevention of violence and a successful resolution of the impasse, while balancing First Amendment rights and community safety.

1980-1990

  • Galveston, Texas: In 1981, as reported in that year’s annual report, CRS successfully mediated a tense confrontation between White and Vietnamese immigrant fishermen in Galveston, where the White shrimpers (with support from Ku Klux Klan) accused the Vietnamese shrimpers of overfishing and other violations of local customs. In addition to mediating between the two groups, CRS coordinated with local and federal officials, civil rights attorneys, and the broader Asian American community, leading to long-term stabilization of relationships among communities.

  • Detroit, Michigan: In June 1982, Vincent Chin, a 27-year-old Chinese American man, was killed by two White men who beat Mr. Chin with a baseball bat while shouting anti-Asian insults relating to the loss of American auto industry jobs. After the two men who pleaded guilty to manslaughter received probationary sentences, Chinese American community members organized protests with African American and Latino communities joining them. As CRS reported in 1983, its mediators assisted the newly formed American Citizens for Justice (ACJ) with formalizing options for a federal response to the protests, arranged for meetings between ACJ and the U.S. Attorney’s Office, and engaged in de-escalation of violence.

  • Police-Community Relations Work: Throughout the 1980s, CRS was central in reforming relationships between law enforcement and minority communities. CRS helped found the National Association of Police-Community Relations Officers, convened symposiums to reduce use of force, and supported minority recruitment in policing. 

1990-2000

  • Los Angeles, California: In 1991-1994, following the Rodney King beating in 1991 and the April 1992 acquittal of the Los Angeles Police Department (“LAPD”) officers who participated in the beating, which sparked massive rioting and civil unrest, CRS deployed conciliation teams to Los Angeles within hours of the verdict to help defuse violence and restore communication between racial and community groups. As reported in 1992 and 1993 reports, CRS served as a neutral liaison between city officials, police, civil-rights organizations, business leaders, and residents, worked with the mayor’s office, LAPD, local clergy, and community coalitions to coordinate peaceful responses and reduce retaliation, helped establish community-based recovery and dialogue programs aimed at healing relationships among African American, Korean, Latino, and other ethnic communities.

  • National Church Arson Task Force: As reported in CRS’s 1996, 1997, and 1998 reports and the National Church Arson Task Force Reports to the President (1997-2000), CRS was instrumental in the federal government’s response to a string of church burnings taking place throughout the United States—many of them targeting African American congregations in the South. In June 1996, Attorney General Janet Reno and Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin jointly established the National Church Arson Task Force, bringing together the FBI, the ATF, the DOJ Civil Rights Division, and CRS. While the other members of the Task Force focused on criminal investigation, CRS established a Church Burning Response Team to offer services to local communities to help with stabilization, healing, and prevention of further violence.

  • Jasper, Texas: In the after of the June 1998 brutal murder of James Byrd, Jr., an African American man, by three White men who tied Mr. Byrd to a metal chain and dragged him behind a pickup truck down a rural road, CRS deployed to Jasper and facilitated a dialogue between the mayor of Jasper and approximately 20 faith leaders and community leaders to gain a broad and comprehensive understanding of the community and its issues. As CRS reported further in the 1998 report, CRS also assisted the city officials, along with federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies, in contingency planning for a number of national and local demonstrations and marches (by both civil rights groups and KKK), which occurred over the months following the incident. CRS also provided conflict management, team building, critical incident preparedness, and cultural awareness training for all school district staff to address the difficulties experienced by students.

2000-2010

  • Post-9/11 Conciliation Work: After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, CRS worked extensively to address racial tensions that arose in the aftermath of the attacks (as reported in the 2001 and 2002 reports). As part of those efforts, under the direction of Attorney General John Ashcroft, CRS prevented hate-based retaliation against Arab, Muslim, Sikh, and South Asian communities. In April 2003, Attorney General John Ashcroft announced that CRS had held more than 250 town and community meetings and forums on backlash issues and developed best practices for law enforcement to prevent and respond to hate incidents against Arab Americans, Muslim Americans, South Asian Americans, and Sikh Americans. Throughout this time, CRS trained law enforcement, organized dialogues, and established working groups nationwide to protect targeted populations and maintain community trust.

  • Hurricane Katrina (2005): In the context of inequalities that emerged in Hurricane Katrina’s chaotic aftermath and post-disaster disputes, CRS assisted communities affected by the storm by defusing and resolving race-based conflicts in areas such as housing, education, employment, and rebuilding contracts. CRS actively prevented the spread of misinformation in communities throughout Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi and responded to allegations of racial disparities following disaster relief efforts. Working closely with the Federal Emergency Management Authority in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, CRS helped address relief access issues for approximately 200 families and identify more than 80 members of a Native American community reported missing. CRS provided services directly to impacted communities, but also extended its reach by providing cultural awareness programs to disaster relief workers around the country on how best to assist, relate, and serve Katrina’s diverse disaster victims.

  • Jena, Louisiana (2007): CRS deployed to Jena to address deep racial conflicts in the community in relation to recent incidents arising from Jena High School. In August 2006, three White Jena High School students hung two ropes fashioned as nooses in the school’s courtyard, which led to disciplinary actions against the three students. In the months following the noose incident, altercations escalated between African American and White students on and off the high school campus. After one fight, six African American students were charged with attempted second-degree murder of a White student, which Black community members viewed to be disproportionately severe. As the story of the “Jena 6” spread across the nation, community groups, civil rights organizations, and advocacy representatives came to conduct protests. To address these conflicts, CRS conducted a Community Education Forum, presented hate crimes forums, and monitored tension at demonstrations. CRS facilitated contingency planning with local officials and law enforcement to prepare for crowd management at protest, and facilitated a School-SPIRIT program at Jena High School.

  • Oakland, California (2009-2010): After the January 2009 shooting death of Oscar Grant, a 22-year-old African American man, by a White Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) police officer while Mr. Grant was lying face down on a train platform with his hands cuffed behind his back, CRS deployed to Oakland to address the civil unrest that arose in response to the alleged excessive force by the BART officer. CRS was on site to help keep protests peaceful, as more than 300 demonstrators first demonstrated in downtown Oakland in January 2009. As the criminal case against the BART officer commenced and community tensions continued, CRS returned to Oakland to provide technical assistance and monitor the tensions during the preliminary trial hearing for the officer. During the trial, CRS provided on-site conciliation services and technical assistance, and supported municipal officials, law enforcement, and community organizations with preparations and actions to prevent and reduce violence in the event of an unpopular verdict.

2010-2020

  • Oak Creek, Wisconsin (2012-2013): CRS played a pivotal role in helping communities recover and rebuild trust following the August 5, 2012, mass shooting at the Sikh Gurdwara in Oak Creek, in which six Sikh worshippers were killed and several others injured. CRS conciliators were deployed to Oak Creek immediately after the shooting to assist local, state, and federal officials in engaging with grieving community members and restoring calm. CRS provided on-site crisis mediation and facilitation between Sikh community leaders, law enforcement, and local government to promote trust and open communication.

  • Sanford, Florida (2013): After the 2012 killing of Trayvon Martin, a young Black man, and the not-guilty jury verdict of George Zimmerman, a mixed-race, White and Hispanic man, CRS mediators worked day and night to maintain calm between protesters, local officials, and law enforcement. In particular, CRS helped bring together a group of Christian pastors and other religious leaders of Sanford to form a “God Squad” for peace and non-violence. These interfaith leaders worked effectively with CRS to prevent disorder and the deepening of racial divisions.

  • Ferguson, Missouri (2014): After the killing of Michael Brown, a young, unarmed, African American man, by a White police officer, sparking months of protests and civil unrest, CRS worked with officials from various law enforcement agencies, as well as local community leaders, to develop viable working relationships and establish a coalition of civic and community leaders to address the underlying issues of the conflict and begin the process of developing long-term solutions to the divisions.

  • Charleston, South Carolina (2015): On June 17, 2015, Dylann Roof entered Charleston's historically African American Mother Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church (Emanuel AME) and killed nine people and wounded one while they attended a Bible study service. Immediately after the attack, CRS arrived in Charleston and began working with the community and coordinated communication between city officials, law enforcement, and community leaders. As various groups traveled to the city to demonstrate against the horrific murders. CRS conducted best practices for maintaining peace to a June 23 march and rally organized by African American advocacy organizations. CRS provided on-site mediation and event marshal services to help maintain peace and de-escalate conflicts on June 23 and subsequent marches.

  • Orlando, Florida (2016): After an armed attacker perpetrated a mass shooting at the Pulse Nightclub, resulting in the massacre of 49 people and the wounding of many more (with the majority of victims reportedly identifying as LGBTQ+), CRS deployed to facilitated a rapid needs assessment for the victimized community and convened a coalition of civic and community leaders to provide immediate support for victims and prevent retaliation or escalation of bias-related tensions. To maintain peace amid heightened emotions, CRS worked with the Orlando Emergency Operations Center and local law enforcement to prepare for counter-protests from anti-LGBTQ+ and anti-Muslim groups during vigils and funerals.

  • Dakota Access Pipeline (2016-2017): CRS helped to facilitate a peaceful outcome to the mandatory evacuation of a Native American camp through which the Dakota Access Pipeline was being planned.  The evacuation order triggered a protest and resistance from the tribes and their supporters who vowed to stay at the camp. CRS met with representatives from federal, state, and local government; social service groups; and the Native American tribe to facilitate dialogue, resolution, and provision of services for Native Americans. With support from CRS and other stakeholders, most protesters left the camp peacefully by the deadline imposed and without incident.

  • Sheridan, Wyoming (2017-2018): Between November 2017 and February 2018, CRS assisted a local college where anti-Native American hate incidents had targeted two female Native American students. These incidents included online racial slurs and vandalism, which heightened tensions due to perceived inaction by campus law enforcement. Responding to a request from college officials, CRS facilitated dialogues among tribal leaders, victims, law enforcement, and college administrators to rebuild trust and address community concerns, while supporting trauma counseling for the affected students. CRS also hosted a Hate Crimes Forum on campus, with participation from law enforcement and tribal representatives, to share strategies for combating bias and improving educational access and collaboration between tribal communities and the college.

  • Kansas City, Kansas (2017-2018): After the February 2017 murder of Srinivas Kuchibhotla, an Indian immigrant, by a White man who had shouted ethnic slurs, and killer’s guilty pleas to state first-degree murder and federal hate crimes, CRS deployed to Kansas City to address the rising racial tensions in the region, as the tensions were raising safety concerns among Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu community members. CRS provided consultation services and facilitated a series of dialogues with law enforcement and the faith community, including a Protecting Places of Worship forum to bring together leaders from the Muslim, Sikh, Hindu, Jewish, and Christian congregations and an Engaging and Building Partnerships with Muslim and Sikh Americans training programs for 70 law enforcement and public officials.

  • Charlottesville, Virginia (2017-2018): In the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally by white supremacist groups in August 2017, during which Heather Heyer was killed and 35 people injured when a self-identified white supremacist rammed his car into a crowd of counter-protesters, CRS deployed to Charlottesville to assess conflict during the rally and helped to reduce heightened tensions after the event. CRS helped to address racial tensions, repair police-community relations, and build trust between the community and city leaders to work together to form a strategy to improve relationships following the conflict.

  • Sacramento, California (2018): After the police shooting of Stephon Clark, a young Black man, in March 2018, Sacramento faced widespread protests and community outrage. Within 24 hours, CRS deployed conciliators to help de-escalate tensions and mediate between residents, city officials, and law enforcement. CRS used its existing relationships to dispel misinformation and advised city leaders on managing the crisis. After the unrest was stabilized, CRS and the city launched the Neighborhood Engagement Strategy Talks program, which brought together residents, business leaders, faith representatives, and city officials to address neighborhood-specific concerns about policing and civic accountability. The process led to new police policies on body cameras and foot pursuits, improved communication, and lasting mechanisms for community feedback.

  • Macomb County, Michigan (2018): After reports of harassment and abuse targeting autistic individuals, CRS facilitated efforts to address growing community tensions. Incidents included verbal abuse of non-verbal autistic students by a teacher and harassment of an autistic man by grocery store employees. CRS partnered with a local disability rights organization to convene dialogues among city, county, and state officials, law enforcement, and school representatives. Together, they organized a disability resource forum to discuss ways to prevent and respond to such incidents. After the forum, which featured presentations from federal and state civil rights officials, local participants agreed to strengthen coordination and meet regularly to support individuals with disabilities.

  • Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (2018-2019): Following the October 2018 Tree of Life synagogue massacre, where 11 worshipers were killed and 7 were wounded, CRS quickly mobilized to assist local and national faith communities, facilitating trust-rebuilding dialogues and community safety programs. CRS worked with civic, faith, and school leaders to assess needs, coordinate with federal and local agencies, create forums addressing bias and safety concerns, and establish a working group to address the fears and tensions caused by the attack. In addition, CRS implemented School-SPIRIT programs in two local high schools, helping students identify and address discrimination and tension through dialogue. Across the United States, CRS organized Protecting Places of Worship and Hate Crimes Forums, helping diverse communities—Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, and others—develop action plans, improve communication with law enforcement, and strengthen their capacity to prevent and respond to hate crimes and bias-motivated violence.

  • Salt Lake City, Utah (2019): Following a November 2018 hate crime against three Latino men in Salt Lake County, Utah, Latino business owners and community leaders reported ongoing racial harassment and a lack of confidence in law enforcement’s response. In response to the business owners’ request, CRS facilitated a dialogue between Latino leaders and the local District Attorney’s Office. The dialogue focused on hate crime definitions, prosecution procedures, and community protections, as well as ways to address barriers such as fear linked to immigration status and language differences that discouraged reporting. CRS shared strategies for community responses, including forums and clergy networks. The District Attorney’s Office pledged improved communication and access to resources, leading to greater community confidence in law enforcement.

2020-Present

  • Minneapolis, Minnesota (2020-2021):  Following the murder of George Floyd, CRS deployed field teams to coordinate communication between law enforcement, activists, clergy, and neighborhood leaders. By combating misinformation and encouraging cooperation, CRS reduced the likelihood of additional violence. Local leaders credited the mediators’ neutrality for preventing wider destruction. With CRS’s facilitation of communications, the civic and community leaders were able to identify action steps for reducing conflict that included an updated Memorandum of Understanding between law enforcement and community groups.

  • Anti-AANHPI Hate Crimes during COVID-19 Pandemic (2021): During the COVID-19 pandemic, Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander (AANHPI) communities across the country experienced a spike in reported discrimination, intolerance, and alleged bias incidents and hate crimes. Recognizing the need to coordinate responses, CRS provided assistance to AANHPI communities in 35 cases across seven states. CRS appointed a dedicated staff member for AANHPI issues to provide support across the regions, and developed a toolkit that leaders could use to develop contingency plans to respond to bias and hate incidents.

  • Brunswick, Georgia (2021-2022): In 2021, during the trials of the three White men who were ultimately convicted of the hate-motivated murder of Ahmaud Arbery, a Black man, CRS helped manage community tensions and promote peaceful engagement. CRS worked with local officials, law enforcement, clergy, and civil rights leaders to establish a Community Coordination Center (“CCC”)—a neutral space for sharing accurate information, coordinating responses, and ensuring safe interactions between demonstrators and police. As a result, throughout the trial, protests and prayer vigils remained peaceful, with participation from local and visiting protest groups. Following the defendants’ guilty verdicts, the community remained calm, reflecting the CCC’s success in fostering trust and cooperation.

  • Akron, Ohio (2022): Days of protest followed the June 2022 killing of Jayland Walker, a Black man who was killed by Akron police officers who shot him more than 60 times after he failed to stop for an alleged traffic violation. CRS helped the police develop guidelines for conduct to maintain safety during demonstrations, facilitated dialogue between the police and local faith leaders, and provided event marshal training for public officials, the police, schools, civil rights organizations and clergy to help them safely prepare for upcoming protests. CRS trained staff in the mayor’s office in facilitating community conflict, and helped launch dialogues between the mayor’s office, the City Council, local Black elected officials and community members.

  • Memphis, Tennessee (2023): CRS had a significant role in mediating police-community conflicts is its response to the January 2023 death of Tyre Nichols, a 29-year old Black man. Nichols “kicked, punched, tased, and pepper sprayed” by police officers after he fled on foot during a traffic stop and died of his injuries three days later. Upon deployment to Memphis, CRS worked with city, faith, and community leaders to facilitate a constructive dialogue and a listening session on the police conduct in this incident. In following-up engagements, CRS provided guidance on best practices for contingency planning before the release of body-worm camera recordings to mitigate potential civil unrest. After the city released the body-camera footage there were nationwide protests. CRS, in response, coordinated with city and community leaders to facilitate peace during the demonstrations that ensued. With the help of CRS’s engagement, the protests remained largely peaceful.

  • Seattle, Washington (2023): CRS facilitated a dialogue between the Seattle Police Department (“SPD”) and a local business leaders’ association to address rising fears and tensions in the Chinatown International District after business owners complained of ongoing anti-Asian graffiti and harassment and what they perceived to be a lack of robust police response. During the CRS-facilitated meeting, SPD agreed to increase patrols and maintain greater visible police presence in the Chinatown International District, which led to a sharp decline in harassment incidents. CRS followed up in the community with education on reporting bias crimes and ways to strengthen trust between businesses and law enforcement.

  • Belchertown, Massachusetts (2023): In April 2023, a local middle school learned that some students were sharing Nazi symbols and Holocaust imagery online in an anti-semitic manner and giving Nazi salutes at school and in the community. To address the situation, the school enlisted CRS's help. After a series of consultations, CRS and school officials organized a School-SPIRIT program attended by about 40 seventh and eighth graders. They worked together to identify safety and security concerns and to develop an action plan for ongoing problem-solving. Volunteers from the U.S. Attorney's Office for the District of Massachusetts, the Belchertown Police Department, Belchertown Public Schools, and local community members also participated in the program.

  • Springfield, Illinois (2024): Local demonstrations and national reaction followed the fatal shooting of Sonya Massey, a Black woman, in her Sangamon County home by a deputy sheriff. As community tensions grew, CRS monitored local demonstrations, then conducted a listening session to help the community express its grief and complaints about the shooting and the local police. The forum drew more than 500 participants, including the Mayor of Springfield, federal and state prosecutors, and local police and civil rights leaders. CRS facilitated a number of dialogues among the working group that grew out of the listening session, including discussions of police hiring and conduct.

  • Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Chicago, Illinois (2024): During a time of unprecedented political polarization, CRS deployed to Milwaukee and Chicago for the Republican National Convention and the Democratic National Convention, as CRS had done every four years.  Working with law enforcement, protest organizers, and municipal leaders, CRS helped both cities manage demonstrations without major violence while ensuring constitutional rights were protected. Throughout both conventions, CRS conciliators were on the streets of the two cities engaging in de-escalation efforts between pro-Palestinian protesters and pro-Israeli protesters and between the protesters and police officers to prevent riots and help maintain peace and order, in coordination with federal, state, and city law enforcement.

Additional Resources on CRS History